The Effects of Racism on Muslim Americans: How to Recognize and Counteract Religion-Based Hate

Without a doubt, one of the most pressing and widespread issues in America is racism. Islamophobia in particular has riddled our country ever since the tragic events of September 11th, and has seemed to spike in the years following the start of the Trump administration. Americans as a whole are extremely intolerant of anyone who looks Middle Eastern, and have killed hundreds of innocent people because they “look like a terrorist.” When not deadly, the effects of racism and bullying based in prejudice are real, lifelong, and very difficult to reverse. Young children are very impressionable, and when exposed to such violent hate at such a young age, can grow into troubled adults. Without the proper therapy and counseling necessary to treat these individuals, their self- concept and other mental issues continue to fester. To counteract this, proper therapy is necessary, and in order to achieve that, one must look into and dissect the very root of the issue, which is racism in and of itself. When one understands the underlying causes of racism, then not only can victims of prejudice be properly treated, but society as a whole can start working to eradicate racism altogether, effectively ensuring that no child ever has to endure such hate again.

What is Islamophobia?

While definitions of Islamophobia have been offered by a range of researchers, scholars, and community organizers grappling with the evolving nature of anti-Muslim sentiment around the world, the Haas Institute defines Islamophobia as “a belief that Islam is a monolithic religion whose followers, Muslims, do not share common values with other major faiths; is inferior to Judaism and Christianity; is archaic, barbaric, and irrational; is a religion of violence that supports terrorism; and is a violent political ideology” (Itaoui & Elsadig 2018). As defined, Islamophobia forms the basis of an ideology that views Muslims as a threat to “Western” civilization (Itaoui & Elsadig). Furthermore, Islamophobia is contingent upon the construction and reification of a homogenized Muslim “other” who should be viewed suspiciously, scrutinized, dehumanized, and excluded from “Western” or “Judeo-Christian” societies (Itaoui & Elsadig).

Islamophobia is expressed in prejudicial views, discriminatory language, and acts of verbal and physical violence inflicted upon Muslims, and those perceived to be Muslim (Itaoui & Elsadig). Islamophobia has manifested in a policing regime that engages in the profiling, surveillance, torture, and detention of people along racial/ethnic and religious lines and has justified the militarization of foreign policy as well as an unprecedented expansion of security apparatuses that impact all peoples (Itaoui & Elsadig).

Islamophobia is not new- rather, Islamophobia in the US is part of a deep-rooted demonization of Islam and Muslims that pre-dates the tragic September 11, 2001 attacks (Itaoui & Elsadig). Some scholars argue that Islamophobia is connected to “colonial empire building” which racialized and dehumanized Muslims, in order to justify the occupation of Muslim lands (Itaoui & Elsadig). In the US, Bernard Lewis’s 1990 article, “The Roots of Muslim Rage,” most notably introduced the argument that there was a “clash of civilizations” between Islam and the West (Itaoui & Elsadig). This set up of an “us vs. them” dichotomy between Islam and the West that has only intensified in the last few decades (Itaoui & Elsadig). Following the 9/11 attacks, this racialization and demonization of Muslims in the US has normalized Islamophobic rhetoric and resulted in organized, well-funded Islamophobia movements across the country and around the world (Itaoui & Elsadig).

Racism in Today’s America

For someone who has never experienced true racism before, it can be hard to comprehend the severity of simple actions such as saying the “N” word or other racial slurs. After all, it is just a word- what harm can it do, really? What these people fail to understand is the centuries of murder, assault, rape, and prejudice behind the word are still relevant to today, even if it may seem that they are not. Ruth Thompson- Miller and Joe R. Feagin”s article, Continuing Injuries of Racism: Counseling in a Racist Context, describes this phenomena in great detail. Thompson- Miller and Feagin state that “white people, generally, [don’t] understand the full meaning of racist discriminatory behaviors directed toward Americans of color. They seem to see each act of discrimination or any act of violence as an ‘isolated’ event. As a result, most white Americans cannot understand the strong reaction manifested by blacks when such events occur” (Thompson- Miller & Feagin 2007). 

What they are saying is that, in general, white Americans cannot comprehend the severity of their seemingly trivial actions, and that people of color  tend to overreact in these situations. Yet, “for the average colored person, literally hundreds of racist incidents, subtle and overt, crash annually into his or her life. Over their lifetimes, many people of color face thousands of racist incidents at the hands of Whites” (Thompson- Miller & Feagin). One incident or remark from a white person, though it may seem trivial, “can bring into sharp and current focus an array of previous racist actions done to a particular individual, as well as to relatives and friends” (Thompson- MIller & Feagin). Emphasizing the cumulative scale and the intense focusing power of specific racist incidents faced by people of color is essential to arguments for bringing home to mental health professionals just what is the primary causation behind the many mental health consequences of contemporary racist acts (Thompson- Miller & Feagin). 

One of the go- to excuses that racist people make to defend their actions is that people of color just need to forget about it- it was such a long time ago, anyways. The expectation that victims of racism need to just “get over it” because “it was a long time ago” is not only cruel, but entirely false. 

For one thing, telling a victim of any violent act to “suck it up” and “get over it” is extremely cruel. The mental scars that develop when one is assaulted cannot just be brushed aside- they need to be dealt with properly or they manifest into bigger mental issues.  Thompson- Miller and Feagin’s article includes a statement from an African- American woman who recounted an incident she had with a racist man 60 years prior, and she was still visibly troubled by the memory:

“During her interview, she needed constant reassurance that her information would be kept anonymous. Continuing injuries are evident; she, like numerous others, reported these events with great pain, anger, or both. She lived in a house with curtains drawn on a sunny day, to the point where it was difficult to see her face. Numerous older respondents still lived in darkened homes and exhibited psychological and physical signs associated with great fear, including breaking out in a sweat and crying while recalling encounters with Whites. One reason for this type of existence is that, when younger, most of these individuals lived in communities where White night riders would rampage through and engage in violence against residents. From the 1880s until the late 1960s, a majority of Blacks lived under extreme, even totalitarian, racial oppression (Thompson- Miller).”

This brings us to the next issue- the impression that racist people have that racism “was a long time ago.” The simple truth is that it did not. Racism is still prevalent in our society today, so the notion that it ended a long time ago is completely, flat- out false. What most racists are referring to when they make that horrid statement are the Jim Crow Laws, which were abolished in 1964. Assuming, first of all, that the Jim Crow Laws were the only racist actions ever taken in America, 1964 was still only 53 years ago. 53 years is not a long time. Moreover, the Jim Crow law were not the embodiment of American racism, and therefore did not eradicate racism in America when they were abolished. Other minorities than African- Americans have been targeted in America for years, and while the eradication of the Jim Crow laws was a big step towards the right direction in America, it only really benefits African- Americans. If African- Americans were the only targeted group of people in America, this would be a non- issue, but the simple fact is that they are not. 

Psychological Effects of Racism on Children

Racism is inherent in our society, which ultimately leads to bullying for young children.  The psychological effects of bullying in general can be crippling, so one can only imagine the damage racism does to young children. 

Racism is a form of bullying, which has been proven to weaken academic performance in young children. Bullying can dangerously affect the social, physical, and psychological well-being as well as academic achievement of students (Boyle 2015). Many studies have demonstrated links between involvement in bullying and poor academic achievement (Boyle).

Researchers have speculated bullying can lessen motivation for school attendance, which can ultimately lead to poorer academic performance (Boyle). Students who perceive high levels of bullying in school may become less engaged in school and less motivated to learn. Fear of being bullied or not accepted at school contributes to dropout and poor academic performance (Boyle). Research found students’ negative school climate ratings were linked with poor academic achievement (Boyle). Recently, Mehta, Cornell, Fan, and Gregory (2013) conducted separate analyses on two measures of school engagement, commitment to school and school involvement. They found when students feel bullying is prevalent in their school, they are more likely to feel unsafe and are less engaged in the school community. As a consequence, they may have less motivation to do well at school and are less likely to be a part of other school activities (Boyle).

Long- Term Effects of Bullying

Negative outcomes of active bullying have long been studied. Far less is known about the long-term effects of passive bullying during elementary school. The present study shows that passive bullying affects victims’ well-being (including suicidal tendencies) in the long term. Moreover, frequent victims of bullying also suffer more often from a range of victimizations in early adulthood than their peers who experienced bullying less often during childhood (Staubli & Martin 2017). Despite possible reservations regarding the validity of retrospective data, it is undoubtedly the case that bullying during childhood precedes negative outcomes during early adulthood. The only explanation that the present data – as well as most longitudinal data – do not eliminate concerns the possibility that some third variable – such as a pessimistic or depressed nature – may trigger victimization by bullying during childhood as well as suicidal tendencies in adulthood (Staubli & Martin). Even if such a theoretical possibility cannot be ruled out, there are good reasons to worry about bullying during elementary school years and to attempt to stop bullies from inflicting harm on their schoolmates. The victims’ immediate well-being during elementary school as well as their later lives are negatively affected (Staubli & Martin).

What it Means to be Muslim in America

Islam has deep roots in the Americas. Muslims were among the first and last slaves to be brought to the Americas,and contributed significantly to the continent's cultural heritage. Given its roots, survival, and growth in the Americas, it is no surprise to note that Islam is poised to become the second largest religion in the United States after Christianity by the first decade of the twenty-first century (Rashid 2015). Despite the fact that Said and other sematic orientalists fall victim to the same error they attribute to Western orientalist, Said's occidental-oriental thesis provides a powerful illustration of popular Western stereotypes that depict Arabs as degenerate individuals capable of cleverly devious intrigues but ultimately sadistic and treacherous (Rashid). For example, to the average American, the words Islam and Muslim conjure images of Arab nationals, the Middle East, and terrorism, even though most Muslims in the US are Americans who practice moderation in religion and who worship the same God worshipped by Christians and Jews. But while people in the US seem more conscious of their bigotry as a nation, popular images of Islam and Muslims nevertheless remain rooted in ignorance, misperception, and prejudice (Rashid). Like other forms of societal bigotry, anti-Muslim bigotry especially in its more subtle form is unmistakably manifest in the etymological footprints of our language (Rashid). 

There are 3.3 million Muslims in the U.S., about 1% of the total population. Attacks on Muslim Americans have become increasingly common, particularly since the attacks of September 11, 2001, and have surged in response to episodes of violence perpetrated by Islamic extremists and to the political rhetoric by GOP presidential nominee Donald Trump (Nazita & Zoltan 2017). Despite their increasing political relevance, however, very little is known about the treatment of and political attitudes towards Muslim Americans. I argue this rampant racialization of Muslim Americans – that is observable in the media, by legislators, and among White attitudes – has led to a shifting racial hierarchy where Blacks no longer are at the bottom, but which is malleable over time and in different contexts (Nazita & Zoltan). The shift in mass attitudes has likewise moved the racial hierarchy to situate Muslim Americans near the bottom and has stark implications for their status in American democracy (Nazita & Zoltan).

Like many other minorities in America, Muslim Americans have been overlooked in the psychological literature. The immense pressures faced by Muslim Americans, including hate crimes, surveillance, and institutional discrimination, further emphasize the need  for psychologists to ensure the mental health of this population. Amer & Bagasara cover challenges in conducting research with Muslim Americans in order to recommend culturally aware approaches that can enhance the continuation of future scholarship. Amer & Bagasara first contextualizes this endeavor by looking at trends in psychological scholarship pertaining to Muslims in North America over the past 20 years. In total, 559 publications were identified through searching the PsycINFO database (Amer & Bagasara 2013). The 10 years after  September 11th saw over a 900% increase in the annual publication count, reflecting a nationwide interest in the Muslim American community pertaining to 9/11 (Amer & Bagasara). 

Conclusion

Though it may not be relevant to every single person in America, Islamophobia and racism as a whole is as prevalent as ever in American society. The words of racists have a far deeper meaning than they may realize, and until they accept the fact of their own racism and actively work to reverse it, the psychological damage caused by racism will continue to spread throughout generations of families of color.

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Works Cited

Thompson- Miller, Ruth, & R. Feagin, Joe. (2007). Continuing Injuries of Racism: Counseling in

a Racist Context.  The Counseling Psychologist, 35(1) 106-114.

Itaoui, Rhonda, & Elsheikh, Elsadig (2018). Islamophobia in the United States: A Reading 

Resource Pack. Haas Institute, 1(1) 30-40.

Boyle, G. N. (2015). The effect of bullying on academic achievement in middle school students 

(Doctoral dissertation, Doctor of Education Degree, Union University, 2015). Ann Arbor, 

MI: ProQuest LLC

Staubli, Silvia, & Killias, Martin (2017). Long- term Outcomes of Passive Bullying during 

Childhood: Suicide Attempts, Victimization and Offending. European Journal of Criminology, 8(5), 377-385.

Lajevardi, Nazita, & Hajnal, Zoltan L (2017). A Comprehensive Study of Muslim American 

Discrimination by Legislators, the Media, and the Masses. UC San Diego Electronic 

Theses and Dissertations, 1(1) 117-119.

Amer, M. M., & Bagasra, A. (2013). Psychological Research With Muslim Americans in the Age 

of Islamophobia.  American Psychologist, 68(3) 134-144. 

Rashid, Samroy (2015). Divergent perspectives on Islam in America. Journal of Muslim 

Minority Affairs, 20(1), 75-90.